Biology
BIOLOGY
GENERAL OBJECTIVES
The aim of the Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examination (UTME) syllabus in Biology is to prepare
the candidates for the Board’s examination. It is designed to test their achievement of the course
objectives, which are to:
1. demonstrate sufficient knowledge of the concepts of the diversity, interdependence and unity of
life;
2. account for continuity of life through reorganization, inheritance and evolution;
3. apply biological principles and concepts to everyday life, especially to matters affecting living
things, individual, society, the environment, community health and the economy.
DETAILED SYLLABUS
A: VARIETY OF ORGANISMS
TOPICS/CONTENTS/NOTES
OBJECTIVES
Candidates should be able to:
1. Living organisms:
a. Characteristics
i. differentiate between the characteristics of living and non-living
things.
b. Cell structure and functions of cell components
c. Level of organization
ii. identify the structures of plants and animal cells.
i. Cell e.g. euglena and paramecium,
iii. analyse the functions of the components of plants and animal
cells.
ii. Tissue, e.g. epithelial tissues and hydra
iii. Organ, e.g. onion bulb
iv. compare and contrast the structure of plant and animal cells.
iv. Systems, e.g. reproductive, digestive and
excretory
v. trace the levels of organization among organisms in their
logical sequence in relation to the five levels of organization
of living organisms.
v. Organisms e.g. Chlamydomonas
Candidates should be able to:
2. Evolution among the following:
a. Monera (prokaryotes), e.g. bacteria and
blue green algae.
i.
analyse external features and characteristics of the listed
organisms:
b. Protista (protozoans and protophyta),
ii. apply the knowledge from (i) above to demonstrate increase in
structural complexity .
e.g. Amoeba, Euglena and Paramecium
c. Fungi, e.g. mushroom and Rhizopus.
iii. trace the stages in the life histories of the listed organisms.
d. Plantae (plants)
iv. apply the knowledge of the life histories to demonstrate
gradual transition from life in water to life on land.
i. Thallophyta (e.g. Spirogyra)
v.
trace the evolution of the listed plants.
ii. Bryophyta (mosses and liveworts) e.g.
Brachmenium and Merchantia.
iii. Pteridophyta (ferns) e.g. Dryopteris.
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Biology
iv. Spermatophyta (Gymnospermae and
Angiospermae)
- Gymnosperms e.g. Cycads and conifers.
- Angiosperms (monocots, e.g. maize; dicots,
e.g. water leaf)
e. Animalia (animals)
Candidates should be able to:
i. Invertebrates
- coelenterate (e.g. Hydra)
- Platyhelminthes (flatworms) e.g. Taenia
- Nematoda (roundworms)
- Annelida (e.g. earthworm)
- Arthropoda e.g. mosquito, cockroach,
housefly, bee, butterfly
i. trace the advancement of the invertebrate animals.
ii. determine the economic importance of the
insects studied.
iii. asses their values to the environment.
- Mollusca (e.g. snails)
ii. Multicellular animals (vertebrates)
-
-
-
-
-
pisces (cartilaginous and bony fish)
Amphibia (e.g. toads and frogs)
Reptilia (e.g. lizards, snakes and turtles)
Aves (birds)
i. trace the advancement of multi-cellular animals.
ii. determine their economic importance.
Mammalia (mammals)
Candidates should be able to:
3.a Structural/functional and behavioural
adaptations of organisms.
i. describe how the various structures, functions and behaviour adapt
these organisms to their environment, and way of life
b. adaptive colouration and its functions
Candidates should be able to:
i. Categorize countershading in fish, toads, snakes and warning
colouration in mushrooms.
c. Behavioural adaptations in social animals
Candidates should be able to:
i. Differentiate various castes in social insects like termites and their
functions in their colony hive.
ii.Account for basking in lizards, territorial behavour of other
animals under unfavourable conditions (hibernation and
aestivation).
d. Structural adaptations in organisms.
Candidates should be able to account for adaptation in organisms
with respect to the following:
i.
Obtaining food (beaks and legs of birds, mouthparts of insects,
especially mosquito, butterfly and moth.)
ii.
Protection and defence (stick insects, praying mantis and toad).
iii. Securing mates (redhead male and female Agama lizards,
display of feathers by birds).
iv. Regulating body temperature (skin, feathers and hairs)
v.
Conserving water (spines in plants and scales in mammals).
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Biology
B: FORM AND FUNCTIONS
Candidates should be able to:
1. Internal structure of a flowering plant
i. Root
ii. Stem
iii. Leaf
i.
identify the transverse sections of these
organs.
a. relate the structure of these organs to their
functions.
b. identify supporting tissues in plants (collenchyma)
sclerenchyma, xylem and phloem fibres)
c. describe the distribution of supporting tissues in roots, stem
and leaf
b. Internal structure of a mammal
Candidates should be able to:
i. examine the arrangement of the mammalian internal organs.
ii. describe the appearance and position of the digestive,
reproductive and excretory organs.
Candidates should be able to:
2. Nutrition
a. Modes of nutrition
i. Autotrophic
i. compare the photosynthetic and chemosynthetic modes of
nutrition;
ii. Heterotrophic
ii. provide examples from both flowering and non- flowering
plants.
iii. compare autotrophic and heterotrophic modes of nutrition.
b. Types of Nutrition
Candidates should be able to:
differentiate the following examples:
-
-
-
-
-
holozoic (sheep and man)
Parasitic (roundworm, tapeworm and Loranthus)
saprophytic (Rhizopus and mushroom)
carnivorous plants (sundew and bladderwort)
determine their nutritional value.
c.
Plant nutrition
i. Photosynthesis
Candidates should be able to:
i. differentiate the light and dark reactions, and state conditions
necessary for photosynthesis.
ii. determine the necessity of light, carbon (IV) oxide and
chlorophyll in photosynthesis.
iii. detect the presence of starch in a leaf as an evidence of
photosynthesis.
ii. Mineral requirements
(macro and micro-nutrients)
Candidates should be able to:
i. identify macro-and micro-elements required by plants.
ii. recognise the deficiency symptoms of nitrogen, phosphorous
and potassium.
d. Animal nutrition
i. Classes of food substances; carbohydrates, proteins, Candidates should be able to:
fats and oils, vitamins, mineral salts and water
i. indicate the sources of the various classes of food;
ii. relate the importance and deficiency e.g. scurvy, rickets,
kwashiorkor etc. of each class;
iii. determine the importance of a balanced diet.
ii. Food tests (e.g. starch, reducing sugar, protein, oil, fat
etc.
Candidates should be able to detect the presence of the listed food
items from the result of a given experiment.
iii. The mammalian tooth (structures, types and functions)
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Biology
Candidates should be able to:
i. describe the structure of a typical mammalian tooth;
ii. differentiate the types of mammalian tooth and relate their
structures to their functions.
iii. compare the dental formulae of man, sheep, and dog.
iv. Mammalian alimentary canal
Candidates should be able to:
i. relate the structure of the various components of the alimentary
canal and its accessory organs (liver, pancreas, and gall bladder)
to their functions.
v. Nutrition process (ingestion, digestion, absorption,
and assimilation of digested food.
Candidates should be able to:
i. identify the general characteristics of digestive enzymes;
ii. associate enzymes with digestion of carbohydrates, proteins
and fats;
iii. determine the end products of these classes of food.
3. Transport
a. Need for transportation
Candidates should be able to:
i. determine the relationship between increase in size and
complexity and the need for the development of a transport
system in plants and animals.
b. Materials for transportation.
Excretory products, gases, manufactured food,
digested food, nutrient, water and hormones)
Candidates should be able to:
i. determine the sources of materials and the forms in which they
are transported.
c. Channels for transportation
Candidates should be able to:
i.
Mammalian circulatory system (heart, arteries,
veins, and capillaries)
i. describe the general circulatory system;
ii. compare specific functions of the hepatic portal vein, the
pulmonary vein and artery, aorta, the renal artery and vein
ii
Plant vascular system (phloem and xylem)
Candidates should be able to:
i. identify the organs of the plant vascular system.
ii. understand the specific functions of the phloem and xylem.
d. Media and processes of mechanism for transportation.
Candidates should be able to:
i. identify media of transportation (e.g. cytoplasm,
cell sap, body fluid, blood and lymph);
ii. know the composition and functions of blood and lymph;
iii. describe diffusion, osmosis, plasmolysis and
turgidity as mechanism of transportation in organisms.
iv. compare the various mechanisms of open
circulatory systems, in animal transpiration pull, root
pressure and active transport as mechanism of transportation
in plants.
4. Respiration
Candidates should be able to:
i. examine the significance of respiration;
ii. describe a simplified outline of the chemical process involved
in glycolysis and krebs cycle with reference to the role ATP
iii deduce from an experimental set up, gaseous exchange and
products, exchange and production of heat energy during
respiration.
a. Respiratory organs and surfaces
Candidates should be able to:
i. describe the following respiratory organs and surfaces with
organisms in which they occur; body surface, gill, trachea,
lungs, stomata and lenticel.
b. The mechanism of gaseous exchange in:
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Biology
Candidates should be able to:
i. describe the mechanism for the opening and closing of the
stomata;
i.
ii.
Plants
Mammals
ii. determine respiratory movements in these animals.
c. Aerobic respiration
Candidates should be able to:
iii. examine the role of oxygen in the liberation of
energy for the activities of the living organisms;
iv. deduce the effect of insufficient supply of oxygen to the
muscles.
d. Anaerobic respiration
Candidates should be able to:
i. use yeast cells and sugar solution to demonstrate
the process of fermentation.
ii. know the economic importance of yeasts.
5.
Excretion
a. Types of excretory structures:
contractile vacuole, flamecell,
nephridium, Malpighian tubule, kidney,
stoma and lenticel.
Candidates should be able to:
i. define the meaning and state the significance of excretion;
ii. relate the characteristics of each structure with
functions.
b. Excretory mechanisms:
i.
ii. lungs
ii. skin
Kidneys
Candidates should be able to:
i. relate the structure of the kidneys to the excretory
and osmo-regulatory functions.
ii. identify the functions and excretory products of
the lungs and the skin.
c. Excretory products of plants
Candidates should be able to:
i. deduce the economic importance of the excretory
products of plants, e.g carbon (IV) oxide, oxygen, tannins,
resins, gums, mucilage, alkaloids etc.
6. Support and movement
Candidates should be able to:
i. determine the need for support and movement in
organisms;
ii. identify supporting tissues in plants (collenchyma,
sclerenchyma, xylem and phloem fibres);
iii. describe the distribution of supporting tissues in
roots, stem, and leaf.
a. Tropic, tactic, nastic and sleep
movements in plants
Candidates should be able to:
i. relate the response of plants to the stimuli of light,
water, gravity and touch;
ii. identify the regions of growth in roots and shoots
and the roles of auxins in tropism.
b. supporting tissues in animals
Candidates should be able to:
i. relate the location of chitin, cartilage and bone to
their supporting function.
ii. relate the structure and the general layout of the
mammalian skeleton to their supportive, locomotive and
respiratory function.
iii. differentiate types of joints using appropriate
examples.
c. Types and functions of the skeleton
i. Exoskeleton
Candidates should be able to:
ii. Endoskeleton
i. apply the protective, supportive, locomotive and
iii. Functions of the skeleton in animals
respiratory functions of the skeleton to the well being of the
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Biology
animal.
7. Reproduction
Candidates should be able to:
a.
A sexual reproduction
i. Fission as in Paramecium
ii. Budding as in yeast
iii. Natural vegetative propagation
iv. Artificial vegetative propagation.
i. differentiate between asexual and sexual reproduction
ii. apply natural vegetative propagation in crop production and
multiplication.
iii. apply grafting, budding and layering in agricultural practices.
b.
c.
sexual reproduction in flowering plants
i. Floral parts and their functions
ii. Pollination and fertilization
Candidates should be able to:
i. relate parts of flower to their functions and reproductive process.
ii. deduce the advantages of cross pollination.
iii. deduce the different types of placentation that develop into
simple, aggregate, multiple and succulent fruits.
iii. products of sexual reproduction
Reproduction in mammals
i. structures and functions of the male and female
reproductive organs
Candidates should be able to:
i. differentiate between male and female reproductive organs
ii. relate their structure and function to the production of offspring.
ii. Fertilization and development.
(Fusion of gametes)
Candidates should be able to:
i. describe the fusion of gametes as a process of
fertilization.
ii. relate the effects of the mother’s health, nutrition
and indiscriminate use of drugs on the developmental stages
of the embryo up to birth.
iii. modern methods of regulating reproduction on e.g. invitro
fertilization and birth control
8. Growth
a. meaning of growth
Candidates should be able to:
i. apply the knowledge of the conditions necessary for
germination on plants growth.
ii. differentiate between epigeal and hypogeal germination.
b. Germination of seeds and condition
necessary for germination of seeds.
9. Co-ordination and control
a.
Nervous coordination:
Candidates should be able to:
i. the components, structure and functions
of the central nervous system;
ii. The components and functions of the
peripheral nervous systems;
iii. Mechanism of transmission of impulses;
iv. Reflex action
i. apply the knowledge of the structure and function of the central
nervous system in the coordination of body functions in
organisms.
ii. illustrate reflex actions such as blinking of the eyes, knee jerk
etc.
iii. differentiate between reflex and voluntary actions as well as
conditioned reflexes such as salivation, riding a bicycle and
swimming.
b.
The sense organs
i. skin (tactile)
ii. nose (olfactory)
iii. tongue (taste)
iv. eye (sight)
Candidates should be able to:
i. associate the listed sense organs with their functions.
ii. apply the knowledge of the structure and functions of these
sense organs in detecting and correcting their defects.
v. ear (auditory)
c. Hormonal control
i. animal hormonal system
- Pituitary
Candidates should be able to:
i. locate the listed endocrine glands in animals.
ii. relate the hormone produced by each of these glands to their
functions.
- thyroid
- parathyroid
- adrenal gland
- pancreas
- gonads
ii. Plant hormones (phytohormones)
Candidates should be able to:
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Biology
i. examine the effects of various phytohormones (e.g. auxins,
gibberellin, cytokinin, and ethylene) on growth, tropism,
flowering, fruit ripening and leaf abscission.
d. Homeostasis
i. Body temperature regulation
ii. Salt and water regulation
Candidates should be able to:
i. relate the function of hormones to regulating the levels of
materials inside the body.
C: ECOLOGY
TOPICS/CONTENTS/NOTES
OBJECTIVES
Candidates should be able to:
1. Factors affecting the distribution of
Organisms
i. deduce the effects of temperature; rainfall, relative
humidity, wind speed and direction, altitude, salinity,
turbidity, pH and edaphic (soil) conditions on the distribution
of organisms.
i. Abiotic
ii. use appropriate equipment (e.g. secchi disc,
thermometer, rain gauge etc) to measure abiotic factors.
ii. Biotic
Candidates should be able to:
i. describe how the activities of plants/animals (particularly
human) affect the distribution of organisms.
Candidates should be able to:
2.
Symbiotic interactions of plants
and animals
i. determine appropriate examples of symbiosis, parasitism,
saprophytism, commensalism, mutualism, amensalism,
competition, predation and cooperation among organisms.
ii. associate the distribution of organisms with food chains and
food webs in particular habitats.
(a) Energy flow in the ecosystem: food chains,
food webs and trophic levels
Candidates should be able to explain:
i. food chains and webs
(b) Nutrient cycling in nature
i. carbon cycle
Candidates should be able to:
i. describe the cycle and its significance including the balance of
atmospheric oxygen and carbon (IV) oxide and global
warming.
ii. water cycle
Candidates should be able to:
i. assess the effects of water cycle on other nutrient cycles.
iii. Nitrogen cycle
Candidates should be able to:
i. relate the roles of bacteria and leguminous plants in the cycling
of nitrogen.
Candidates should be able to:
3.
Natural Habitats
i. associate plants and animals with each of these habitats.
(a) Aquatic (e.g. ponds, streams, lakes
seashores and mangrove swamps)
(b) Terrestrial/arboreal (e.g. tree-tops of oil palm,
Candidates should be able to:
abandoned farmland or a dry grassy (savanna) field, i. relate adaptive features to the habitats in which organisms
and burrow or hole.
live.
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Biology
Candidates should be able to:
4.
Local (Nigerian) Biomes)
i. locate biomes in regions
a. Tropical rainforest
b. Guinea savanna (southern and northern)
c. Sudan Savanna
ii. apply the knowledge of the features of the listed local
biomes in determining the characteristics of different
regions of Nigeria.
d. Desert
e. Highlands of montane forests and grasslands of the
Obudu, Jos, Mambilla Plateau.
5.
The Ecology of Populations:
Candidates should be able to:
(a) Population density and overcrowding.
i. determine the reasons for rapid changes in human
population and the consequences of overcrowding.
ii. compute/calculate density as the number of organisms per
unit area.
(b) Adaptation for survival
Candidates should be able to:
i. Factors that bring about competition
i) Relate increase in population, diseases, shortage of food
and space with intra- and inter-specific competition.
ii. Intra and inter-specific competition
Candidates should be able to:
i) Determine niche differentiation as a means of reducing
intra-specific completion.
iii. Relationship between competition and
succession.
Candidates should be able to:
i) Relate competition to succession.
(c) Factors affecting population sizes:
Candidates should be able to:
i. Biotic (e.g. food, pest, disease, predation, competition, i. deduce the effect of these factors on the size of population.
reproductive ability).
i. determine the interactions between biotic and abiotic factors,
ii. Abiotic (e.g. temperature, space, light, rainfall,
topography, pressure, pH) etc.
e.g. drought or scarcity of water which leads to food
shortage and lack of space which causes increase in disease
rates.
(d) Ecological succession
i. primary succession
ii. secondary succession
Candidates should be able to:
i. trace the sequence in succession to the climax stage of
stability in plant population.
6.
SOIL
Candidates should be able to:
a) (i) characteristics of different types
of soil (sandy, loamy, clayey)
i. soil structure
i. identify physical properties of different soil types based on
simple measurement of particle size, porosity or water
retention ability.
ii. porosity, capillarity and humus
content
ii. determine the amounts of air, water, humus and capillarity in
different soil types experimentally.
iii. Components of the soil
i. inorganic
Candidates should be able to:
i. relate soil characteristics, types and components to the
ii. organic
healthy growth of plants
iii. soil organisms
iv. soil air
Candidates should be able to:
v. soil water
i. relate such factors as loss of inorganic matter, compaction,
leaching, erosion of the top soil and repeated cropping with
one variety.
Soil fertility:
i. loss of soil fertility
ii. renewal and maintenance of soil fertility
Candidates should be able to:
i. apply the knowledge of the practice of contour ridging,
terracing, mulching, poly-cropping, strip-cropping, use of
organic and inorganic fertilizers, crop rotation, shifting
cultivation, etc. to enhance soil conservation.
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Biology
Candidates should be able to:
7. Humans and Environment
i. identify ecological conditions that favour the spread of
common endemic and potentially epidemic diseases e.g.
malaria, meningitis, drancunculiasis, schistosomiasis,
onchocerciasis, typhoid fever and cholera etc.
(a) Diseases:
(i) Common and endemic diseases.
ii. relate the biology of the vector or agent of each disease with
its spread and control.
ii. Easily transmissible diseases and disease
syndrome such as:
- poliomyelitis
Candidates should be able to:
i. use the knowledge of the causative organisms, mode of
transmission and symptoms of the listed diseases to their
prevention/treatment/control.
- cholera
- tuberculosis
- sexually transmitted disease/syndrome
(gonorrhea, syphilis, AIDS, etc.
ii. apply the principles of inoculation and vaccination on
disease prevention.
b. Pollution and its control
Candidates should be able to:
(i) sources, types, effects and methods of control.
i. categorize pollution into air, water and soil.
ii. relate the effects of common pollutants to human health
and environmental degradation.
iii. determine the methods by which each pollutant may be
controlled.
(ii) Sanitation and sewage
Candidates should be able to:
i. examine the importance of sanitation with emphasis on solid
waste, sewage disposal, community health and personal
hygiene.
ii assess the roles and functions of international and national
health agencies (e.g. World Health Organization (WHO),
United Nations International Children Emergency Fund
(UNICEF), International Red Cross Society (IRCS), and the
ministries of health and environment.
(c) Conservation of Natural Resources
Candidates should be able to:
(i) apply the various methods of conservation of both the
renewable and non-renewable natural resources for the
protection of our environment for present and future
generations.
(ii) outline the benefits of conserving natural resources,
prevention of desertification.
(iii) identify the bodies responsible for the conservation of
resources at the national and international levels (e.g.
Nigerian Conservation Foundation
(NCF), Federal
Ministry of Environment, Nigeria National Parks, World
Wildlife Foundation (WWF), International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN),
United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) and
their activities.
(iv) asses their activities.
(d) Game reserves and National parks
Candidates should be able to:
i. Know the location and importance of game reserves and
National parks in Nigeria
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Biology
D: HEREDITY AND VARIATIONS
(I) Variation In Population
Candidates should be able to:
a. Morphological variations in the physical appearance i. differentiate between continuous and discontinuous variations
of individuals.
with examples.
(i) size (height, weight)
ii. relate the role of environmental conditions, habitat and the
genetic constitution to variation.
Candidates should be able to:
i) measure heights and weights of pupils of the same age group;
ii) plot graphs of frequency distribution of the heights and
weights.
(ii) Colour (skin, eye, hair, coat of animals, scales
and feathers.
Candidates should be able to:
(iii) Fingerprints
i) observe and record various colour patterns in some plants and
mammals.
Candidates should be able to:
b. Physiological variation
(i) Ability to roll tongue
(ii) Ability to taste
i) apply classification of fingerprints in identity detection.
phenylthiocarbamide (PTC)
(iii) Blood groups
Candidates should be able to:
i) identify some specific examples of
physiological variation among human population.
c. Application of discontinuous
variation in crime detection,
blood transfusion and
ii) categorize people according to their physiological variation.
determination of paternity.
Candidates should be able to:
i) apply the knowledge of blood groups in
blood transfusion and determination of paternity.
ii) use discontinuous variation in crime detection.
2. Heredity
a) Inheritance of characters in organisms;
i) Heritable and non-heritable characters.
Candidates should be able to:
i. determine heritable and non-heritable characters with
examples.
b) Chromosomes – the basis of heredity;
(i) Structure
(ii) Process of transmission of hereditary
characters from parents to offspring.
Candidates should be able to:
i. illustrate simple structure of DNA
Candidates should be able to:
i. illustrate segregation of genes at meiosis and recombination
of genes at fertilization to account for the process of
transmission of characters from parents to offsprings.
c) Probability in genetics and sex determination.
Candidates should be able to:
i) deduce that segregation of genes occurs during gamete
formation and that recombination of genes at fertilization is
random in nature.
a) Application of the principles of heredity in:
i) Agriculture
Candidates should be able to:
i. analyze data on cross-breeding experiments.
ii. apply the principles of heredity in the production of new
varieties of crops and livestock through cross-breeding.
iii. deduce advantages and disadvantages
of out-breeding and in-breeding.
iv. analyze elementarily the contentious issues of genetically
(ii) Medicine
modified organisms (GMO) and gene therapy and biosafety.
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Biology
Candidates should be able to:
i) apply the knowledge of heredity in marriage counselling with
particular reference to blood grouping, sickle-cell
anaemia and the Rhesus factors.
ii) examine the significance of using recombinant DNA
materials in the production of important medical products
such as insulin, interferon and enzymes.
b. Sex – linked characters e.g. baldness,
haemophilia, colour blindness, etc.
Candidates should be able to:
i) identify characters that are sex linked.
E: EVOLUTION
OBJECTIVES
TOPICS/CONTENTS/NOTES
1. Theories of evolution
a) Lamarck’s theory
b) Darwin’s theory
c) organic theory
Candidates should be able to:
i.) relate organic evolution as the sum total of all adaptive
changes that have taken place over a long period of time
resulting in the diversity of forms, structures and
functions among organisms.
ii.) examine the contributions of Lamarck and Darwin to the
theory of evolution.
iii.) know evidences in support of organic evolution
2. Evidence of evolution
Candidates should be able to:
i.) provide evidences for evolution such as fossil records,
comparative anatomy, physiology and embryology.
ii.) trace evolutionary trends in plants and animals.
iii.) provide evidence for modern evolutionary theories such as
genetic studies and the role of mutation.
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Biology
RECOMMENDED TEXTS
Ndu, F.O. C. Ndu, Abun A. and Aina J.O. (2001) Senior Secondary School Biology:
Books 1 -3, Lagos: Longman
Odunfa, S.A. (2001) Essential of Biology, Ibadan: Heinemann
Ogunniyi M.B. Adebisi A.A. and Okojie J.A. (2000) Biology for Senior Secondary Schools: Books 1 – 3, Macmillan
Ramalingam, S.T. (2005) Modern Biology, SS Science Series. New Edition, AFP
Stan. (2004) Biology for Senior Secondary Schools. Revised Edition, Ibadan: Heinemann
Stone R.H. and Cozens, A.B.C. (1982) Biology for West African Schools. Longman
Usua, E.J. (1997) Handbook of practical Biology 2nd Edition, University Press, Limited
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